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Mule

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For other uses, see Mule (disambiguation) and Mules (disambiguation).

Mule
Domesticated
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Equidae
Subtribe: Equina
Genus: Equus
Species:
E. africanus asinus♂ × E. ferus caballus♀

The mule is a domestic equine hybrid between a donkey and a horse. It is the offspring of a male donkey (a jack) and a female horse (a mare).[1] The horse and the donkey are different species, with different numbers of chromosomes;[2] of the two possible first-generation hybrids between them, the mule is easier to obtain and more common than the hinny,[3] which is the offspring of a male horse (a stallion) and a female donkey (a jenny).[2]

Mules vary widely in size, and may be of any color seen in horses or donkeys. They are more patient, hardier and longer-lived than horses, and are perceived as less obstinate and more intelligent than donkeys.[4]: 5 

Terminology

A female mule is often called a "molly" or "Molly mule," though the correct term is "mare mule." A male mule is called a "john" or "John mule," though the correct term is "horse mule." A young male mule is called a "mule colt," and a young female is called a "mule filly." The donkey used to produce mules is called a "mule jack,"[5] and a group of mules is often called a pack, though the words barren and span also apply.[6]

History

ancient Egyptian painting showing a horse-drawn chariot and another drawn by a pair of animals which could be mules or onagers
Painting in the Tomb of Nebamun at Thebes, showing a pair of animals which could be mules or onagers
Ancient Greek rhyton in the shape of the head of a mule, made by Brygos, early fifth century BC, Jérôme Carcopino Museum, Aleria, Corsica

Breeding of mules became possible only when the range of the domestic horse, which originated in Central Asia in about 3500 BC, extended into that of the domestic ass, which originated in north-eastern Africa. This overlap probably occurred in Anatolia and Mesopotamia in Western Asia, and mules were bred there before 1000 BC.[7]: 37 

The Hittites, a people of Asia Minor known for their horse-riding skills, held mules in higher esteem than their best horses. The price of a mule was three times that of a good horse for the Hittites. Similarly, mules were seven times as valuable as donkeys to the Sumerians.[8]

A painting in the Tomb of Nebamun at Thebes, dating from approximately 1350 BC, shows a chariot drawn by a pair of animals which have been variously identified as onagers,[9] as mules[7]: 37  or as hinnies.[10]: 96  Mules were present in Israel and Judah in the time of King David.[7]: 37  There are many representations of them in Mesopotamian works of art dating from the first millennium BC. Among the bas-reliefs depicting the Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal from the North Palace of Nineveh is a clear and detailed image of two mules loaded with nets for hunting.[10]: 96 [11]

Homer noted their arrival in Asia Minor in the Iliad in 800 BC.[12]

Mules influenced the development of North America when Christopher Columbus introduced donkeys and horses to the continent during his expeditions in 1495. Bringing four male and two female donkeys in addition to horses allowed for the production of mules, which assisted the Spanish in their conquest of the continent. The defeat of the Aztecs, for example, opened up Mexico as a mule breeding ground, and the presence of mules in military operations and watch duties soon became commonplace.[8]

Mule and Ass by Hendrik Goltzius or Hieronymus Wierix, 1578

George Washington bred mules at his Mount Vernon home. At the time, they were not common in the United States, but Washington understood their value, as they were "more docile than donkeys and cheap to maintain."[13] By the nineteenth century, mules had become favored draught animals on farms and for pulling boats. Their numbers in the US reached 885,000, though they remained more popular in the south than the north.[8] Most notably, the Twenty Mule Teams pulled, often in teams of 20 or more animals, wagonloads of borax out of Death Valley, California from 1883 to 1889. They pulled wagons carrying 10 short tons (9 metric tons) of borax ore during trips to the Borate mines before being replaced by railroads.[14]

Mules were used by armies to transport supplies, occasionally as mobile firing platforms for smaller cannons, and to pull heavier field guns with wheels over mountainous trails such as in Afghanistan during the Second Anglo-Afghan War.[15]

In the second half of the twentieth century, widespread use of mules declined in industrialised countries. The use of mules for farming and for transportation of agricultural products largely gave way to diesel-powered tractors and transportation.[16]

On 5 May 2003, Idaho Gem, a mule foal cloned by nuclear transfer of cells from foetal material, was born at the University of Idaho in Moscow, Idaho. Neither an equid nor a hybrid animal had been cloned before.[17][18]

As of 2018, Mexico has the largest mule population in the world at 3,287,449.[19]

Characteristics

In general terms, in both the mule and the hinny, the foreparts and head of the animal are similar to those of the father sire, while the hindparts and tail tend to resemble those of the dam.[7]: 36  A mule is generally larger than a hinny, with longer ears and a heavier head; the tail is usually covered with long hair like that of its mare mother.[7]: 37  A mule has the thin limbs, small narrow hooves and short mane of the donkey, while its height, the shape of the neck and body, and the uniformity of its coat and teeth are more similar to those of the horse.[20]

Mules vary widely in size, from small miniature mules under 125 cm (50 in) to large and powerful draught mules standing up to 180 cm (70 in) at the withers.[21][22]: 86  The median weight range is between about 370 and 460 kg (820 and 1000 lb).[21]

The coat may be of any color seen in the horse or in the donkey. Mules usually display the light points commonly seen in donkeys: pale or mealy areas on the belly and the insides of the thighs, on the muzzle, and around the eyes. They often have primitive markings such as dorsal stripe, shoulder stripe or zebra stripes on the legs.[7]: 37 

The mule exhibits hybrid vigor.[23] Charles Darwin wrote: "The mule always appears to me a most surprising animal. That a hybrid should possess more reason, memory, obstinacy, social affection, powers of muscular endurance, and length of life, than either of its parents, seems to indicate that art has here outdone nature."[24]

The mule inherits from the donkey the traits of intelligence, sure-footedness, toughness, endurance, disposition, and natural cautiousness. From the horse it inherits speed, conformation, and agility.[25]: 5–6, 8  They grow faster and live longer, giving them a larger interval of productivity compared to the horse and donkey.[26] They rarely become ill, unlike horses, who often need to be checked for worms, and like their donkey parent, mules can see their hind-legs and have hooves better suited to dry climates.[27] Additionally, muleskin is tougher than that of a horse or donkey and tend to live longer on less resources than their horse counterpart.[28] Mules are reputed to exhibit a higher cognitive intelligence than their parent species, but robust scientific evidence to back up these claims is lacking. Preliminary data exist from at least two evidence-based studies, but they rely on a limited set of specialized cognitive tests and a small number of subjects.[29][30]

Similar to other equine animals, mules can sleep while standing (mostly to protect themselves against danger). To prevent predation, a group of mules may select members of the pack to "stand watch" while sleeping upright as the others sleep on the ground.[31]

Fertility

The speciation of horses and donkeys from their common ancestor happened sometime between 7.7 and 15.4 million years ago.[26] Today, they are phenotypically and genetically different, with a horse having 64 chromosomes and a donkey having 62.[2] A mule has 63 chromosomes, 32 from the horse and 31 from the donkey. Its odd number of chromosomes makes gamete formation difficult, often leaving mules infertile.[2] This also disqualifies them as a species under the biological species model.[32]

The conception of a mule is difficult due to the differences in behavior and mating patterns between donkeys and horses. When in close proximity, groups of horses and groups of donkeys do not interact with each other often, and donkeys remain at the bottom of the equine social hierarchy while horses rule the pasture and mules are left in a mid-tier social caste.[33]

Mule pregnancy is rare, but can occasionally occur naturally, as well as through embryo transfer. A few mare mules have produced offspring when mated with a horse or a jack.[34][35] Herodotus gives an account of such an event as an ill omen of Xerxes' invasion of Greece in 480 BC: "There happened also a portent of another kind while he was still at Sardis—a mule brought forth young and gave birth to a mule" (Herodotus The Histories 7:57), and a mule's giving birth was a frequently recorded portent in antiquity, although scientific writers also doubted whether it was really possible (see e.g. Aristotle, Historia animalium, 6.24; Varro, De re rustica, 2.1.28). Between 1527 and 2002, approximately sixty such births were reported.[35] In Morocco in early 2002 and Colorado in 2007, mare mules produced colts.[35][36] Blood and hair samples from the Colorado birth verified that the mother was indeed a mule and the foal was indeed her offspring.[37]

A 1939 article in the Journal of Heredity describes two offspring of a fertile mare mule named "Old Bec," which was owned at the time by Texas A&M University in the late 1920s. One of the foals was a female, sired by a jack. Unlike her mother, she was sterile. The other, sired by a five-gaited Saddlebred stallion, exhibited no characteristics of any donkey. That horse, a stallion, was bred to several mares, which gave birth to live foals that showed no characteristics of the donkey.[38] In 1995, a group from the Federal University of Minas Gerais described a female mule that was pregnant for a seventh time, having previously produced two donkey sires, two foals with the typical 63 chromosomes of mules, and several horse stallions that had produced four foals. The three of the latter available for testing each bore 64 horse-like chromosomes. These foals phenotypically resembled horses, though they bore markings absent from the sire's known lineages, and one had ears noticeably longer than those typical of her sire's breed. The elder two horse-like foals had proved fertile at the time of publication, with their progeny being typical of horses.[39]

Use

A 20-mule team in Death Valley, California

While a few mules can carry live weight up to 160 kg (353 lb), mules can generally be packed with dead weight up to around 90 kg (198 lb).[40] Although it depends on the individual animal, mules trained by the Army of Pakistan are reported to be able to carry up to 72 kg (159 lb) and walk 26 km (16.2 mi) without resting.[41]

Mules have uses beyond heavy lifting. In the Abruzzo region of Italy, for example, mules are used to defend herds of animals against predators like wolves and feral dogs. Horse breeders in Italy used to add a female mule to their flocks, finding that the mule tended to protect the foals with even more vigor than the actual mother.[42]

Mule trains are also used to deliver food to remote areas of the world. In Nepal, for example, the World Food Programme provides food for children in the Sudurpaschim province with the help of mule drivers.[43]

The most recent use for the mule is as a research specimen, especially in studies regarding the slicing, rearrangement, and compatibility of chromosomes.[26]

Care and Management

A mule's diet is more similar to that of a donkey than a horse. They store water more efficiently, for example, and can consume 15 gallons of it daily, making them suitable for more desert-like climates. Their diet is also herbivorous, mainly consisting of grains, hay and greens, though they can also enjoy fruits and vegetables. And while they are not "picky-eaters" in the way humans view the term, mules do have similar tastebuds and therefore have dietary preferences based on taste and texture.[44] Additionally, protein intake can be in issue with mules, so monitoring the amount of essential amino acids in their diet can be helpful.[45]

A mule's hooves should be cleaned regularly to remove debris and should be shortened at least every two months to prevent overgrowth, pain, and discomfort. If necessary, mules may also wear muleshoes to protect their hooves.[44] While similar to horseshoes, mule shoes are generally smaller due to their smaller hooves.[46] Furthermore, a mule's coat and hair need to be groomed regularly, including clippings about twice monthly.[44]

An adult mule's temperature should remain within the range of 37.5°C – 38.5°C, their pulse has a healthy range of 26-40 bpm, and they should take 8-16 breaths per minute as well.[47]

References

  1. ^ "What is a mule?". The Donkey Sanctuary. 5 September 2020. Archived from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
  2. ^ a b c d Rodriguez, Monica (20 June 2007). "Why can't mules breed?". The Tech Interactive. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
  3. ^ ANDERSON, W. S. (1 December 1939). "FERTILE MARE MULES*". Journal of Heredity. 30 (12): 549–551. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a104657. ISSN 0022-1503.
  4. ^ Jackson, Louise A (2004). The Mule Men: A History of Stock Packing in the Sierra Nevada. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press. ISBN 0-87842-499-7.
  5. ^ moduet. "Animal Terms". The Livestock Conservancy. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
  6. ^ "Names for Groups of Animals". arapahoelibraries.org. 10 December 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2025.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Valerie Porter, Lawrence Alderson, Stephen J.G. Hall, D. Phillip Sponenberg (2016). Mason's World Encyclopedia of Livestock Breeds and Breeding Archived 5 February 2023 at the Wayback Machine (sixth edition). Wallingford: CABI. ISBN 9781780647944.
  8. ^ a b c "History of the Mule". American Mule Museum. Retrieved 3 March 2025.
  9. ^ Tomb-painting: Museum number EA37982. London: British Museum. Archived 25 June 2020.
  10. ^ a b Juliet Clutton-Brock (1981). Domesticated Animals from Early Times. Austin: University of Texas Press; London: British Museum (Natural History). ISBN 0292715323.
  11. ^ Wall panel; relief: Museum number 124896 Archived 6 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine. London: British Museum. Accessed July 2022.
  12. ^ "Homer, Iliad, Book 23, line 93". perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022. mules
  13. ^ Chernow, Ron (2010). Washington: A Life. New York: The Penguin Press. pp. 483–484. ISBN 978-1-59420-266-7. OCLC 535490473.
  14. ^ "Twenty Mule Team Trail, California - American Trails". www.americantrails.org. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  15. ^ Caption of Mule Battery WDL11495.png Library of Congress
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  17. ^ Katrin Hinrichs (2011). Nuclear Transfer. In: Angus O. McKinnon, Edward L. Squires, Wendy E. Vaala, Dickson D. Varner (editors) (2011). Equine Reproduction, second edition. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781444397635.
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  20. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mule". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 959–960.
  21. ^ a b "Mule | Draft Horse, Donkey & Hybrid | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 1 February 2025. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
  22. ^ M. Eugene Ensminger (1990). Horses and Horsemanship (Animal Agriculture Series), sixth edition. Danville, Illinois: Interstate Publishers. ISBN 9780813428833.
  23. ^ Chen, Z. Jeffrey; Birchler, James A., eds. (2013). Polyploid and Hybrid Genomics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-96037-0. Archived from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
  24. ^ Darwin, Charles (1879). What Mr. Darwin Saw in His Voyage Round the World in the Ship 'Beagle'. New York: Harper & Bros. pp. 33–34. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
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  27. ^ "Differences between Horses and Donkeys". Donkey & Mule Protection Trust NZ. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  28. ^ "Reasons why Mules rule". Brooke. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
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  30. ^ Giebel; et al. (1958). "Visuelles Lernvermögen bei Einhufern". Zoologische Jahrbücher. Physiologie. 67: 487–520.
  31. ^ Williamsport, Mailing Address: 142 W. Potomac St; Us, MD 21795 Phone: 301-739-4200 Contact. "Caring for Mules - Chesapeake & Ohio Canal National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2 March 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ "18.2A: The Biological Species Concept". Biology LibreTexts. 13 July 2018. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
  33. ^ Beaver, Bonnie V. (1 January 2019), Beaver, Bonnie V. (ed.), "Chapter 5 - Equine Social Behavior", Equine Behavioral Medicine, Academic Press, pp. 115–150, ISBN 978-0-12-812106-1, retrieved 17 February 2025
  34. ^ Savory, Theodore H (1970). "The Mule". Scientific American. 223 (6): 102–109. Bibcode:1970SciAm.223f.102S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1270-102.
  35. ^ a b c Kay, Katty (2 October 2002). "Morocco's miracle mule". BBC News. Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2009.
  36. ^ "Befuddling Birth: The Case of the Mule's Foal". National Public Radio. 26 July 2007. Archived from the original on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2009.
  37. ^ Lofholm, Nancy (19 September 2007). "Mule's foal fools genetics with 'impossible' birth". Denver Post. Archived from the original on 7 November 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2009.
  38. ^ Anderson, W. S. (1939). "Fertile Mare Mules". Journal of Heredity. 30 (12): 549–551. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a104657.
  39. ^ Henry, M.; Gastal, E.L.; Pinheiro, L.E.L.; Guimarmes, S.E.F. (1995). "Mating Pattern and Chromosome Analysis of a Mule and Her Offspring". Biology of Reproduction. 52 (Equine Reproduction VI – Monograph Series 1): 273–279. doi:10.1093/biolreprod/52.monograph_series1.273.
  40. ^ "Hunter's Specialties: More With Wayne Carlton On Elk Hunting". hunterspec.com. Hunter's Specialties. 2009. Archived from the original on 8 October 2010. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
  41. ^ Khan, Aamer Ahmed (19 October 2005). "Beasts ease burden of quake victims". BBC. Archived from the original on 29 April 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
  42. ^ Camillo, Francesco; Rota, Alessandra; Biagini, Lorenzo; Tesi, Matteo; Fanelli, Diana; Panzani, Duccio (1 June 2018). "The Current Situation and Trend of Donkey Industry in Europe". Journal of Equine Veterinary Science. SI:Donkey Science. 65: 44–49. doi:10.1016/j.jevs.2017.11.008. ISSN 0737-0806.
  43. ^ "The backstory: The sherpa of Nepal's Far West | World Food Programme". www.wfp.org. 25 October 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2025.
  44. ^ a b c Williamsport, Mailing Address: 142 W. Potomac St; Us, MD 21795 Phone: 301-739-4200 Contact. "Caring for Mules - Chesapeake & Ohio Canal National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2 March 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ "ScienceDirect.com | Science, health and medical journals, full text articles and books". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2 March 2025.
  46. ^ "Gallery Item Display (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2 March 2025.
  47. ^ "Differences between Horses and Donkeys". Donkey & Mule Protection Trust NZ. Retrieved 6 March 2025.

Further reading

  • Media related to Mule at Wikimedia Commons
  • Data related to Equus mulus at Wikispecies
  • The dictionary definition of mule at Wiktionary
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